Any discussion on religion remains incomplete without a reference
to moral and ethical values. The case of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is
no exception to that. It is true that ethics has not been systematically
treated by the Gaudiya philosophers and that the issue in question
has not been discussed independently, yet the fact remains that
morality or ethics remains the sheet-anchor in their thought system.
The philosophers of this school maintain that spiritual progress
is hardly possible without moral endeavour; hence, they consider
religion and ethics as inseparable As a matter of fact, the merging
of the two remains an important feature for them. However, in the
absence of any methodical exposition, we have to draw largely upon
the teachings of Sri Chaitanya and the examples set by him and his
close disciples.
The supreme goal of religious life is to achieve an
insight into the nature of Truth. Truth is attainable by a complete
self-surrender to the Supreme while giving up all worldly desires.
Self-surrender leads to the attainment of His grace. By attaining
this grace, a devotee attains some of His virtues. Krishnadasa Kaviraja
clarifies thus:
saran laka kare krishne atmasamarpan
krishna tare kare tatkale atmasama (Chaitanya-caritamrita, Madhya, 2.22.55)
However, the virtues of a devotee can in no way be equated
to the virtues of God; at best, the devotee's virtues can be expressed
as minute drops of the infinite virtues of God. According to Sri
Rupa Goswami:
In the same spirit, Krishnadasa Kaviraj has enlisted
the aforementioned virtues. A Vaishnava, according to Sri Chaitanya,
must possess the qualities of compassion, love, forbearance, generosity,
truthfulness, freedom from all worldly attachment and a complete
control over the senses. He must be free from all kinds of impurities,
such as, passion, desire, hatred and lust; he is also expected to
remain calm and balanced under all circumstances of life. Vices
like greed, anger and jealousy are enemies to a devout life. The
Srimad Bhagavatam depicts such a virtuous devotee as a sadhu
or one of the highest character. According to the Srimad Bhagavatam:
titiksava karunika suhrida sarva-dehinam
ajata-satrava santa sadhva sadhu-bhusanah "He who is tolerant, compassionate, a friend of all and
enemy of none; he remains engrossed in the thought of Krishna
and remains verily a man of highest character, a sadhu."
(Srimad Bhagavatam, 3.25.21)
While describing the Vaishnava code of conduct, Sri
Chaitanya has laid down certain ethical commandments, an adherence
of which remains necessary and vital for a devotee of Krishna. The
krishna-bhakta or a devotee is expected to give up the company
of evil persons, agnostics and women; their association not only
disturbs the equilibrium of the mind, it also drives the devotee
away from God. Association of good and pious people (sadhusanga)
whose only object of thought and discussion remains Krishna is to
be preferred. In the process, the devotee develops sraddha or faith
in Krishna. This faith deepens and takes the form of love. As a
result of this love for Krishna, all his worldly attachments wither
away. In the words of Shri Chaitanya:
Presently we shall examine the attitude of Sri Chaitanya
to varnashrama-dharma. As is known, the varnashrama-dharma
was propounded in the Manu-samhita (the oldest Indian law
book) and remained the central core of Hindu ethics. According to
the said text, the human race is organised into four natural psycho-physical
types (varnas); likewise, each individual life is divided
by Manu in four natural stages or stations (ashrams). The
four varnas or castes (brahmana, kshatriya, vaisya and
sudra) were created according to the individual merits of each
person. However, during the passage of time, rigidity appeared in
the ancient social system when the individual character and conduct
(gunakarma) was no more being taken into account. Caste was
determined by one's birth in a particular varna alone. Such
an inflexible expression of the varnashrama-dharma brought
in its wake inequality and it was against such a state of affairs
that Sri Chaitanya raised his voice. In this regard, the Master's
clarion call to his followers was to leave the varnashrama-dharma
altogether. According to Sri Chaitanya, a Vaisnava has no caste
and his only duty or svadharma consists in serving Lord Krishna
alone and reciting His name. Further, Sri Chaitanya sincerely believed
in the concept of individual equality and never considered caste-rank
as a criterion for determining one's social superiority. In Sri
Chaitanya's expression and opinion, a candala (pariah) may
even be considered superior to a brahmana (high caste) if
he is pious and recites the name of Krishna; conversely, a brahmana
ceases to be so if he does not worship Lord Krishna. Vrindavana
dasa has faithfully reported the words of the Lord thus:
chandal chandal nahe jadi krishna bole vipra nahe
vipra jadi asat pathe chale (Chaitanya Bhagavata, Madhya,
ch. 1, p. 98 1 )
In order to instil a sense of equality in the contemporary
society, Sri Chaitanya declared that all and every body remained
inseparable parts of the Divinity; every single heart is the abode
of Lord Krishna. It is in this sense that all are to be treated
as equal and each member of the society irrespective of caste and
rank should be honoured. Krishnadas has faithfully reported, jive
samman dive jani krishna adhisohan (Chaitanya Bhagavata,
Antya, ch. 20, p.731). Further, jiver 'svarupa hay krisnera
nitya-das' (Madhya, ch.20, p. 840) which means that every individual
is an ever-attendant of Krishna and hence they are equal.
Sri Chaitanya denounced varnashrama-dharma not
only because it creates inequality, but also because it implants
in the minds of the followers the desire to attain material happiness
either in this life or the next. As long as such desires are there
in a man, he cannot attain the grace of God. And without the grace
of God, he fails to become a true devotee and attain God. Varnashrama-dharma
therefore cannot be accepted as an integral part of devotion.
Along with an uncompromising devotion to God, a Vaishnava
is expected to show perfect tolerance to other systems of faith
and religion, refrain from criticising other Gods and religions.
Further love and compassion have been extolled as the two cardinal
virtues by this School. Along with this they have also called upon
the faithful to practice non-violence in every manner-by thought,
word and deed. Humility remains another characteristic virtue. In
words that have become classical, Sri Chaitanya has urged:
trinad api sunicena, taror api sahishnuna
amanina manadena, kirtaniya sada hari 'A Vaishnava in his daily life should be humbler than even
a blade of grass. Without having pride in himself, he should honour
others. He must be tolerant like a tree which does not beg water
even if it dries up. He should live a very simple life and must
recite the name of Hari at all moments.'
Practising non-attachment to worldly objects remained
another important virtue preached by this School. In the light of
the Bhagavad-gita, Sri Chaitanya insisted that one must do
the duties of life without waiting for the results and in a spirit
of dedication and service to Krishna. Sri Chaitanya's views were
very clear. Prema or love for God remains the highest purushartha
(object of desire). The four traditional purusharthas (dharma,
artha, kama and moksha) were rejected by him as relatively
insignificant. It may be mentioned here that moksha as the
goal of life is given the highest value by almost all Schools of
Indian philosophy. It is only in the Chaitanya School that this
has been treated so insignificantly; the reason behind this may
be that while the devotee's only object of desire is to attain God
by means of love, the mumuksatva (one desirous of liberation)
aims at the union of the two (that is the devotee and this object
of devotion.) Thus moksha acts as an obstacle in the path
of krishna-bhakti and cannot satisfy the devotee's desire
to live in the constant company of God. In the event of this merging
of the two (the devotee and the object of devotion), the very desire
in a devotee to live in the constant company of God gets jeopardised.
The devotee does not want to become one with God; he prefers to
remain separate and enjoy the bliss of his company.
The Haribhaktivilasa of Sri Sanatana Goswami
and Sri Gopal Bhatta gives us a detailed account of the ritualistic
observances and devotional practices. The above text referring to
vaidhi-bhakti, though consisting of mechanical observances
of the various injunctions, has certain positive ethical significance.
While the devotee remains completely engaged day and night in the
performance of the rituals, he cannot help but think of God. A blind
following of the various rituals brings forth a constant remembrance
of God and this naturally purifies the mind of a devotee. The devotee
somehow feels naturally drawn towards the Lord just as the senses
are automatically drawn towards the desired object. In fact, external
observances like the worship of the Deity, the offering food to
Him, partaking of the food offerings, the chanting of the holy name,
singing songs to His glory, performing arati with light,
incense, conch-shell, repeating the sacred name and so on and so
forth are intended to gradually bring a state of composure by diverting
the mind from various sense objects to God and God alone. Aside
from these daily duties, the devotee is also expected to observe
fasts on various occasions, and thereby imposes self-restraint.
Thus, in various ways, the Chaitanya School provides
modern man with a complete ethical pattern. It enriches the thought-system
of humanity as a whole. By all means it has a global significance,
because such an ethical network is universally acceptable.
Sri Chaitanya maintained the same stand while
formulating the necessary requirements for being a guru (spiritual
preceptor). The followers of Sri Chaitanya have canonised this
liberal attitude in the Haribhaktivilasa. A high born,
in spite of his learning, may be technically unfit to become a
guru, if he is a non-Vaishnava. (Haribhaktivilasa p.9 verse
54; also see p.35, verse 12)
Author: David Gordon White
Publisher: The University of Chicago Press Ltd., London,
1996
ISBN: 0-226-89497-5 (cloth)
The Alchemical Body excavates and centres within its Indian
context the lost tradition of the medieval Siddhas. Working
from a body of previously unexplored alchemical sources,
David Gordon White demonstrates for the first time that
the medieval disciplines of Hindu alchemy and hatha-yoga
were practised by the same people, and that they can only
be understood when viewed together. White opens the
way to a new and more comprehensive understanding of medieval
Indian mysticism, within the broader context of South Asian
Hinduism, Jainism and Islam.
Themes and
Issues in Hinduism
(A volume in the World Religions:
Themes and Issues series)
edited by Paul Bowen
Publisher: Cassel (London and Washington)
First published 1998
ISBN 0-304-33850-8 hardback
ISBN 0-304-33851-6 paperback
This book offers useful insights into the complex and internally
diverse realm of Hinduism. It is intended to acquaint the
reader with themes and issues that, while of relevance to
all religious traditions and systems, contribute to an understanding
of the abstract nature of Hinduism as a whole. Beginning
with Hindu religious understandings of the human condition,
the chapters are arranged so as to form a thematic survey
and overview of Hindu religious beliefs and practices. The
themes of morality and ethics, the role of women in Hinduism,
the Hindu religious construction of nature, and issues such
as mythology, the status of texts, forms of worship, and
sacred time and place can be systematically considered;
or, alternatively, focus can fall upon those topics that
are of particular personal interest. Readers should find
this book a wide-ranging and balanced introduction to Hinduism's
inner diversity.
Written for students of comparative religion and the general
reader, and drawing on the chapters originally edited by
Jean Holm and John Bowker in the Themes in Religious Studies
series, the volumes in World Religions: Themes and Issues
explore core themes from the perspective of the particular
religious tradition under study.
Tantric Visions
of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas
Author: David Kinsley
Publisher: University of California Press Ltd., London,
1997
ISBN: 0-52020498-0 (cloth)
ISBN: 0-520-20499-9 (pbk)
What is one to make of a group of goddesses that includes
a goddess who cuts her own head off, a goddess who sits
on a corpse while pulling the tongue of a demon, or a goddess
who prefers sex with corpses? Tantric Visions of the Divine
Feminine deals with a group of ten Hindu Mahavidyas, who
embody habits, attributes or identities usually considered
repulsive or socially subversive. It is within the
context of tantric worship that devotees seek to identify
themselves with these forbidding goddesses. The Mahavidyas
seem to function as 'awakeners' - symbols that help to project
one's consciousness beyond the socially acceptable or predictable.
Kinsley not only describes the eccentric qualities of each
of these goddesses but seeks to interpret the Mahavidyas
as a group and to explain their importance for understanding
Tantra and the Hindu tradition.
Hinduism for Our
Times
Author: Arvind Sharma
Publisher: Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1996
ISBN: 0-195-63749-6
No religion ever remains static: it affects and is in turn
affected by material reality. It is the creative tension
embodied in this dynamic which makes the world of religion,
rich with possibilities.
This book examines the contours of this creative tension
in the context of Hinduism in our own times. For Hinduism,
a religion of unknown antiquity is also, in several ways,
surprisingly modern. Hinduism for Our Times is an attempt
to raise this dimension of Hinduism to an unprecedented
level of self-awareness. Thus the choices that Hindus
must make in the context of modernisation and globalisation
become conscious as opposed to random choices, choices which
will place Hinduism at the cutting edge of the contemporary
world instead of consigning it to the periphery. This
book will appeal to all those interested in giving religion
a modern agenda.
A Hare Krishna
at Southern Methodist University
Author: Tamala Krsna Goswami
Publisher: Pundits Press, Dallas
ISBN 0-9643485-2-7
A Hare Krishna at Southern Methodist University is a collection
of award-winning essays mapping the convergence of East
and West by Hare Krsna leader Tamala Krsna Goswami. Readers
are invited to enter the world of a unique spiritual pioneer,
who in reality is the seeker in all of us.
